Has England improved its recycling and waste management?

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Introduction

This report from DEFRA evaluates England’s progress toward six ambitious Resources & Waste Policy goals—from boosting recycling to eradicating food waste to landfill by 2030. It reveals where businesses, local authorities and consumers are gaining ground, and where stubborn gaps still threaten the circular-economy agenda.

Key takeaways

• Circular practices are growing, but recycled content is thin. 91% of durable-goods makers use some circularity measures, yet recycled feedstock typically makes up < 40% of product material.
• Recycling participation is high – contamination is higher. Over 80% of people recycle everyday items, but 81 % put non-accepted materials in the bin, eroding quality and driving up costs.
• Infrastructure lags, especially for niche streams. Only one-third of councils can process most collected waste; more than half lack facilities for batteries or textiles, creating costly export or landfill leakage.
• Single-use plastics are retreating, but buyer behaviour hasn’t caught up. 72% of packaging firms now use recycled inputs, yet they say consumers still rank price and brand trust above sustainability at checkout.
• Waste crime remains a stubborn drag. An estimated 18% of waste is handled illegally, mirrored by an 18.4 % landfill-tax gap, despite 482 illegal-site shutdowns last year.
• Food waste is the Achilles’ heel. The UK still generates 10.7 Mt of food waste; only 24% of businesses treat surplus redistribution as core, and separate food-waste collections cover just 45% of councils.

Conclusion

England is edging toward a more circular economy, but progress is uneven and the 2030 targets are far from secure. To close the gap, DEFRA’s data point to three priorities: step-change investment in local sorting capacity, clear nationwide labelling to cut contamination, and tougher enforcement against waste crime. Without rapid action—especially on food waste—the country risks missing its own deadlines and losing the economic upside of a truly circular system.

At the end of last year, the Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) released its data report on England’s Resources and Waste Policy programme, which involved improving recycling rates for households and businesses; improving waste quality; and reducing plastic pollution and eliminating food waste to landfill by 2030. In this edition of the Brief, we outline the main findings of the report and the results of these policies.

The policy outcomes (POs) detailed in the report are as follows:

• PO1: More products are regularly retained, reused, repurposed or remanufactured
• PO2 and PO3: Improve recycling rates and quality of municipal waste
• PO4: Plastics waste and plastic pollution is reduced
• PO5: Waste crime is reduced
• PO6: Eliminate food waste to landfill by 2030

Product reuse, return and recycling

Under Policy 1, the report shows that while the use of recycled materials in manufacturing processes was commonly reported by the businesses surveyed, the share of recycled materials compared to virgin materials used was often low, below 40%. Over half of all retailers of either electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), textiles or batteries surveyed were implementing practices to improve the circularity and sustainability of the products they sold.

Retailers and wholesalers of EEE and batteries were more positive about the potential of practices that incentivized customers to reuse, return, recycle or repair their products; but they were less positive about practices that required more extensive changes to their business model.

In terms of business practices, the report states that 91% of producers of durable goods reported that they were implementing practices related to circularity or sustainability of products. 81% of food and drink retailers and businesses in England surveyed reported that they were implementing or had already implemented changes to internal business practices to reduce waste and/or increase recycling, reuse or repurposing.

When it comes to purchasing choices, the data indicates that longevity, quality and trust in the brand were the key drivers for both individuals and businesses in their purchasing choices, while product labelling assuring consumers of the sustainability of products only played a small role. 

Another finding of note is that most producers estimated that recycled materials comprise less than 40% of the total materials of the products they are used in (by weight), and that less than 20% of the materials used overall by their business are recycled.  

Municipal waste quality and recycling rates

The outcomes of Policy 2 and 3 regarding municipal waste focused on recycling behaviour and opportunities, the end destination of waste in England and waste management capacity.

Key findings around recycling behaviour included that over 80% of individuals and businesses reported usually recycling plastic bottles or containers, aluminium or steel cans and paper and cardboard, with a third always or mostly recycling food waste. 

However, the report also states that 81% of UK citizens disposed of items in the recycling that is not accepted in their household collection, and only around half of the individuals surveyed in England reported checking the labelling on the product or its packaging before disposing of it, if they are uncertain how something could be recycled or whether it could be recycled at all.

DEFRA also examined the recycling opportunities in local authorities. A reported 93% identified waste and recycling collection as one of the most resource-intensive functions, with the monitoring of waste and recycling volumes appearing to be ‘comparatively under-resourced’.

One-third of local authorities in England stated that they have the capability to process all or most collected waste, with a majority reporting being able to process garden and food waste. However, over half lacked the ability to process batteries or textiles.

Consumer recycling and circular economy

The report also reveals that while consumers reported sustainable purchasing, re-use and repair behaviour and displayed a preference for reusable alternatives compared to single-use products - considering them cost-efficient and better for the environment - the availability and accessibility of reusable options presented a challenge. 

DEFRA emphasized that despite consumer willingness to recycle, there is room for improvement in missed capture and contamination. It highlighted that household mixed dry recycling collections were found to be between 4% and 13.5% contaminated based on collection methodology.

Reducing plastics waste and pollution

Policy outcome 4 involved the prevalence and use of single-use plastic items and plastic packaging. According to DEFRA, consumers reported that they had noticed a decrease in the availability of plastic products and an increase in products designed for reuse, recyclability, or repair. This was most common for disposable plastic plates, bowls, trays, cups, or cutlery.

For plastic packaging, 72% of product and packaging businesses reported using recycled materials in their production lines, with most using recycled paper or cardboard and plastics.

However, these businesses generally ‘did not believe that consumers prioritized the sustainability of a product when choosing products to purchase’.

Reducing and deterring waste crime

The fifth policy outcome centers on the deterrence and prevalence of waste crime. Here DEFRA states that in 2022/23, respondents to the National Waste Crime Survey estimated that 18% of waste was managed illegally, a finding strengthened by the fact that the landfill tax gap was high at 18.4%. It adds that in the same time period, the Environment Agency identified 443 new illegal waste sites and stopped illegal waste activity at 482.

While most businesses and retailers surveyed in DEFRA’s report were aware of their waste management processes, some lacked formal processes for reviewing waste authorisations.

Eliminating food waste to landfill by 2030

The final policy outcome refers to food waste disposal and food surplus and distribution, particularly in businesses and local authorities. In this area DEFRA cites WRAP’s estimates for 2021, which showed that the UK generated 10.7 million tonnes of food waste, of which 6.4 million tonnes were estimated to have come from households and 1.1 million tonnes (10.3%) was hospitality and food service waste.

Out of 296 local authorities in England, DEFRA’s report says that 134 offer separate food waste collection and 35 offer mixed food and garden waste collection. It also states that as of March 2024, there are 140 anaerobic digestion plants in England that process some form of food waste.

Apparently, between 2015 and 2022 596,000 tonnes of surplus food was redistributed, worth over £2 billion pounds and equivalent to more than 1.4 billion meals.

However, out of the England based businesses that do generate food surplus (43% of the total surveyed), only a quarter (24%) said handling food surplus is an integral part of their business operations and future planning.

In addition, DEFRA claims that recycling rates for food waste are lower than for other waste streams, and food waste and food surplus prevention was not prioritized amongst food and beverage retailers and businesses.

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